FTIR spectroscopy comes up often in conversation and rarely with the context attached. Here we lay out the basics in order, then work through the practical considerations.
Last reviewed on 2026-06-07. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Creatine monohydrate is sold as a dietary ingredient in some countries and as a food supplement in others. Regulatory frameworks vary, so purity limits, labeling rules, and permitted claims are not globally uniform. In the United States, it falls under dietary supplement rules, whereas the European Union treats it as a food supplement ingredient. Pharmacopeial monographs, where they exist, can provide public quality standards, but not every product is required to meet them. Questions about long-term effects and patterns of use remain areas of active study rather than settled regulatory findings.
Solid creatine monohydrate is generally stable when kept cool and dry, but it can hydrolyze to creatinine over time. Moisture, heat, and acidic conditions accelerate this conversion, which reduces assay values and changes the material's properties. Creatinine is a cyclic dehydration product that is also a normal human metabolite, so its presence in a sample is not necessarily a health concern by itself. In quality testing, creatinine is monitored as a marker of degradation and purity.
Identity and purity are assessed with several complementary methods. High-performance liquid chromatography can separate creatine from creatinine and related impurities, often with ultraviolet detection. Nuclear magnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopy provide structural confirmation, while Karl Fischer titration measures water content. Elemental analysis and mass spectrometry may be used for additional confirmation, especially in research or forensic settings. No single method captures every quality attribute, so laboratories typically combine results and compare them against a specification.
Quality assessment of creatine monohydrate typically uses high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and other impurities. Other methods include nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, titration, and infrared spectroscopy for identity confirmation. Purity is often reported as a percentage of the labeled compound on a dry basis, while moisture content is measured separately. Because different analytical methods have different selectivity, comparing purity values across sources requires attention to the method and sample preparation.
In dry solid form, creatine monohydrate is relatively stable when protected from moisture and heat. The crystal lattice includes water, and exposure to high humidity can cause caking or gradual changes in powder flow. Elevated temperatures may accelerate decomposition, particularly if moisture is present. Studies generally report that sealed, dry material retains acceptable purity for extended periods, although exact shelf life depends on packaging and storage conditions. Light exposure is not usually considered a major factor for this compound.
In aqueous solution, creatine monohydrate undergoes a slow conversion to creatinine, a cyclized degradation product. This reaction is pH- and temperature-dependent, and it proceeds faster in warm or alkaline conditions. Because the conversion is gradual, analytical measurements of creatine in solution must account for time and storage history. The equilibrium favors creatinine more strongly at higher temperatures, which is relevant to sample handling in laboratories and to beverage formulations. Refrigeration slows but does not entirely stop this process.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Purity (typical) | ≥99% by HPLC | Supplement and pharmacopeial grades vary |
| Water content | ≈12.1% theoretical | Measured by Karl Fischer titration |
| Creatinine limit | Often ≤0.1% in pharmacopeial grade | Supplement specifications may differ |
| Storage conditions | 15–25 °C, low humidity | Away from heat and acidic environments |
| Common analytical methods | HPLC–UV, NMR, FTIR, Karl Fischer | Used for identity, assay, and water content |
In the body, creatine is obtained from dietary meat and fish and is also synthesized from arginine, glycine, and methionine. Muscle stores creatine and phosphocreatine, which participate in the rapid regeneration of adenosine triphosphate during short, intense activity. The monohydrate form is used in research because it is chemically defined, stable as a dry solid, and relatively inexpensive to produce. Questions remain about whether other creatine forms offer meaningful advantages in absorption or tissue retention, and findings vary across studies and populations.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed from creatine and one molecule of water. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid that occurs in vertebrate muscle and other tissues. The monohydrate designation refers to the water included in the crystal lattice, not to water added during manufacturing. Its chemical formula is commonly written as C4H9N3O2·H2O. The solid is typically a white, odorless powder with low solubility in water at room temperature. It is one of several creatine forms described in scientific and commercial literature.
The compound was identified in the nineteenth century after chemists isolated a nitrogenous substance from meat extracts. Later work established its role in muscle energy metabolism and its conversion to phosphocreatine. Chemical synthesis of creatine followed, and industrial production made the monohydrate widely available as a purified powder. Interest expanded in the late twentieth century when researchers began studying creatine supplementation and muscle physiology. Historical accounts sometimes differ on exact dates and attributions, but the broad sequence from tissue extracts to synthetic production is well documented.
Identity and purity are commonly assessed by high-performance liquid chromatography, often with ultraviolet detection, and by spectroscopic techniques such as infrared or nuclear magnetic resonance. These methods can distinguish creatine from creatinine and detect related impurities. Moisture content may be measured by Karl Fischer titration or loss on drying. Particle size, bulk density, and heavy metal limits are additional quality parameters. Not every product is tested by every method, so specifications depend on the intended use and regulatory framework.
Solid creatine monohydrate is generally stable when kept dry and protected from extremes of heat and humidity. In the presence of moisture, it can gradually convert to creatinine, a cyclic dehydration product that has little value for phosphocreatine synthesis. Elevated temperatures and acidic conditions accelerate this conversion in solution. Because the reaction is slow in cool, dry storage, typical shelf lives are measured in years rather than weeks. Packaging that limits moisture and oxygen exposure helps maintain purity.
Recommended storage usually involves a sealed container kept at room temperature, away from direct sunlight and moisture. High humidity can cause caking, which changes flow properties and may complicate accurate weighing. Repeated opening of containers exposes the powder to air and moisture, so smaller aliquots can reduce handling effects. Storage temperature ranges are not absolute requirements; they reflect conditions that slow degradation and preserve consistent physical characteristics. Clean, dry tools help prevent contamination during sampling.
Analytical methods for creatine monohydrate focus on identity, purity, and degradation products. High-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection is common, often at a wavelength near 210 nanometers. Titration and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can also quantify the parent compound. Pharmacopeial monographs specify tests for appearance, solubility, water content, and related substances, including creatinine. Purity values above 99 percent are typical for pharmaceutical-grade material, though supplement-grade products vary. Independent verification can detect label discrepancies.
Sourcing and verification of creatine monohydrate involve both manufacturing origin and third-party testing. Industrial production commonly starts with sarcosine and cyanamide, followed by crystallization to obtain the monohydrate. Some products are derived from animal sources, while others are synthesized from non-animal precursors. Certificates of analysis report assay, heavy metals, and microbial limits. Regulations differ by country: in the United States it is sold as a dietary supplement, whereas in the European Union it falls under food supplement rules.
In solid form, creatine monohydrate is relatively stable when kept dry and away from heat. Moisture and elevated temperatures promote cyclization into creatinine, a related compound with no role in the phosphagen system. Degradation accelerates in aqueous solution, where the conversion can occur within hours to days depending on pH and temperature. Manufacturers typically recommend storage in sealed containers at room temperature, with relative humidity below 50 percent. Long-term stability data for opened containers are limited.
Stability studies typically examine the effects of temperature, humidity, and light on creatine monohydrate. Sealed containers stored in cool, dry conditions help limit moisture uptake and hydrolysis. Elevated temperature and high relative humidity can accelerate conversion to creatinine, especially in aqueous solutions. In solid dosage forms, excipients and processing steps may also affect stability. Published stability data are not fully consistent across studies because test conditions and analytical methods vary.
Quality control of creatine monohydrate relies on a combination of identity, purity, and moisture tests. High-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection is widely used to separate creatine from creatinine and other related nitrogenous compounds. Spectroscopic methods such as infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance provide structural confirmation. Because the material is a hydrate, water content is measured separately, often by Karl Fischer titration. These tests together establish whether a lot meets a defined specification.
Little research has been focused on the suppository (anal insertion), also known as "plugging" or "boofing". These methods of administration are commonly carried out using an oral syringe. Heroin can be dissolved and withdrawn into an oral syringe which may then be lubricated and inserted into the anus or vagina before the plunger is pushed. The rectum or the vaginal canal is where the majority of the drug would likely be taken up, through the membranes lining their walls.
== Growth and morphology == Rhizopus oryzae grows quickly in optimal temperatures, at 1.6 mm per hour (nearly 0.5 μm per second - enough to be able to directly visualize hyphal elongation in real-time under the microscope). R. oryzae can grow in temperature of 7 °C to 44 °C and the optimum growth temperature is 37 °C. There is very poor growth from 10 °C to 15 °C and negligible growth at 45 °C. There is substantial growth in media containing 1% NaCl, very poor growth at 3% NaCl, and none at 5% NaCl. R. oryzae favors slightly acidic media. Good growth is observed at a pH of 6.8; in the range of 7.7-8.1, there is very poor growth. Most amino acids—with the exception of L-valine—promote R. oryzae growth, with L-tryptophan and L-tyrosine being the most effective. It also grows well on mineral nitrogen sources, except nitrate, and can utilize urea. Rhizopus oryzae has variable sporangiosphores. They can be straight or curved, swollen or branched, and the walls can be smooth or slightly rough. The colour of sporangiosphores range from pale brown to brown. Sporangiosphores grow between 210-2500 μm in length and 5-18 μm in diameter. The sporangia in R. oryzae are globose or subglobose, wall spinous and black when mature, 60-180 μm in diameter. They can be distinguishable from Rhizopus stolonifer as they have smaller sporangia and spores. The optimal conditions for sporangium production are temperatures between 30 °C to 35 °C and low water levels.
Initial letters are used where there is no ambiguity: C cysteine, H histidine, I isoleucine, M methionine, S serine, V valine. No other amino acids in this set begin with each of those letters. Where arbitrary assignment is needed, the structurally simpler amino acids are given precedence: A alanine, G glycine, L leucine, P proline, T threonine. For example, alanine is simpler than arginine or asparagine, the other amino acids starting with "a". F PHenylalanine and R aRginine are assigned by being phonetically suggestive, W tryptophan is assigned based on the double ring being visually suggestive to the bulky letter W, K lysine and Y tyrosine are assigned as alphabetically nearest to their initials L and T (note that U was avoided for its similarity with V, while X was reserved for undetermined or atypical amino acids); for tyrosine the mnemonic tYrosine was also proposed, D aspartate was assigned arbitrarily, with the proposed mnemonic asparDic acid; E glutamate was assigned in alphabetical sequence being larger by merely one methylene –CH2– group, N asparagine was assigned arbitrarily, with the proposed mnemonic asparagiNe; Q glutamine was assigned in alphabetical sequence of those still available (note again that O was avoided due to similarity with D), with the proposed mnemonic Qlutamine.
Mirtazapine, sold under the brand name Remeron among others, is an atypical tetracyclic antidepressant, and as such is used primarily to treat depression. Its effects may take up to four weeks but can also manifest as early as one to two weeks. It is often used in cases of depression complicated by anxiety or insomnia. The effectiveness of mirtazapine is comparable to other commonly prescribed antidepressants. It is taken by mouth. Common side effects include sleepiness, dizziness, increased appetite, and weight gain. Serious side effects may include mania, low white blood cell count, and increased suicide among children. Withdrawal symptoms may occur when stopping. It is not recommended together with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor, although evidence supporting the danger of this combination has been challenged. It is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe. How it works is not clear, but it may involve blocking certain adrenergic and serotonin receptors. Chemically, it is a tetracyclic antidepressant, and is closely related to mianserin. It also has strong antihistaminergic effects. Mirtazapine came into medical use in the United States in 1996. The patent expired in 2004, and generic versions are available. In 2023, it was the 99th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 6 million prescriptions.
The process of pasteurizing donkey milk deactivates bacterial and viral contaminants. Donkey milk contains immune-enhancing compounds (in particular lysozyme and lactoferrin) to help protect infants from disease. In addition, the flavour and appearance of donkey milk are attractive to children.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Detailed statistics were not released by the Singapore government between 2000 and 2006. Singapore's Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong told the BBC in September 2003 that he believed there were "in the region of about 70 to 80" hangings in 2003. Two days later he retracted his statement, saying the number was in fact ten. In total, at the end of 2003, 19 people were hanged. While no information is issued on the race and ethnicity of death row inmates, it was noted in 2021, during an appeal from a number of Malay death row inmates who alleged racism on the part of the government, that there were a large number of Malays among those on death row, with only handfuls of other minority races. Between 2010 and 2021, Malays made up 66 of the 120 prosecuted for capital drug offences, with 76% of cases concluding with the death sentence. 50 out of 77 people sentenced to death between 2010 and 2021 were Malays, with a remaining 15 Indians, 10 Chinese and two from other races. Since 2010, of all the 77 sentenced to death, there were 14 Malaysians being condemned to death row, with eleven of them ethnic Indians, two Malays and one Chinese. Former chief executioner, Darshan Singh, who died from COVID-19 complications on 31 October 2021, stated that he had executed more than 850 people during his service, which began in 1959. When conducting the executions, he would use the phrase: "I am going to send you to a better place than this.
=== Thrombocytopenia === Immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) — formerly known as immune thrombocytopenic purpura and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura Splenomegaly Gaucher's disease Familial thrombocytopenia Chemotherapy Babesiosis Dengue fever Onyalai Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura HELLP syndrome Hemolytic–uremic syndrome Drug-induced thrombocytopenic purpura (five known drugs — most problematic is heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) Pregnancy-associated Neonatal alloimmune associated Aplastic anemia Transfusion-associated Pseudothrombocytopenia Vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT)
=== Agents of deterioration === Textiles deteriorate naturally as the fibers age. Managing the rate of deterioration is the goal when caring for textiles. External forces can increase the amount of deterioration in fabrics. In addition to aging, the following agents contribute to decay.
While Neanderthals may have been using this process 200,000 years ago, the oldest evidence for dry distillation among modern humans only dates to 20,000 years ago. Many Neanderthal sites have evidence of fire, some for extended periods of time. They may have been using fire for cooking, keeping warm, and deterring predators. They were also capable of zoning areas for specific activities, such as for knapping, butchering, hearths, and wood storage. At Abric Romaní rock shelter, Spain, Neanderthals may have maintained eight evenly spaced hearths lined up against the rock wall, likely used to stay warm while sleeping, with one person sleeping on either side of the fire. The only known Neanderthal tools that could have been used to fashion clothes are hide scrapers as no bone sewing-needles and stitching awls have been found as in Cro-Magnon sites. Hide scrapers could have been used to make items similar to blankets or ponchos. There is no direct evidence that Neanderthals could make fitted clothes from animal hide. Unfitted clothes would have limited range of mobility while dressed, and decreased the time Neanderthals could spend unprotected from the elements away from shelters. Anterior dental microwear of Neanderthals living in open environments is similar to that of the modern Ipiutak and Nunavut people, who are known to use their anterior teeth for clamping while preparing hides, suggesting that Neanderthals may have engaged in similar behaviour.
By comparison, smaller scale civil defense programs were instituted in the United States starting in the 1950s, where schools and other public buildings had basements stocked with non-perishable food supplies, canned water, first aid, and dosimeter and Geiger counter radiation-measuring devices. Many of the locations were given "fallout shelter" designation signs. CONELRAD radio information systems were adopted, whereby the commercial radio sector (later supplemented by the National Emergency Alarm Repeaters) would broadcast on two AM radio frequencies in the event of a Civil Defense (CD) emergency. These two frequencies, 640 and 1240 kHz, were marked with small CD triangles on the tuning dial of radios of the period, as can still be seen on 1950s-vintage radios on online auction sites and museums. A few backyard fallout shelters were built by private individuals. Henry Kissinger's view on tactical nuclear war in his controversial 1957 book Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy was that any nuclear weapon exploded in air burst mode that was below 500 kilotons in yield and thus averting serious fallout, may be more decisive and less costly in human lives than a protracted conventional war. A list of targets made by the United States was released sometime during December 2015 by the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. The language used to describe targets is "designated ground zeros".
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
A sealed container kept at room temperature and away from moisture is typical. Heat and humidity promote conversion to creatinine and can reduce assay values. Long-term storage under dry conditions helps maintain the original crystalline form.
Creatinine is a degradation product formed when creatine loses water and cyclizes. It can appear during storage, processing, or analysis if conditions are harsh. Quality specifications often set a maximum limit for creatinine to control purity.
No universal testing protocol applies across all markets. Some products follow pharmacopeial monographs, while others rely on manufacturer specifications and third-party certificates. Common tests include assay, water content, heavy metals, and microbial limits.
Dry, sealed creatine monohydrate can remain stable for years, but storage conditions affect its shelf life. Moisture, heat, and repeated opening of containers can reduce quality over time.