A practical reference on monohydrate: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
This page was last updated on 2026-06-14 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Commercial creatine monohydrate is produced mainly by chemical synthesis rather than extraction from animal tissue. Suppliers provide a certificate of analysis listing assay, water content, and impurity limits, and some products undergo third-party testing. Verification of identity can use infrared or Raman spectroscopy alongside chromatographic methods. Storage recommendations generally call for a cool, dry place and a tightly closed container to limit moisture uptake. Open questions include how packaging, flavoring agents, and long-term storage affect the stability of finished products.
Dry creatine monohydrate is generally stable when kept sealed and protected from heat and moisture. In solution, however, creatine undergoes a slow cyclization to creatinine, a related compound with no role in phosphocreatine storage. The rate of this conversion increases with temperature and is influenced by pH. Because creatinine is a common impurity in liquid or poorly stored products, analytical testing often measures both compounds. The crystalline monohydrate is less prone to degradation than aqueous preparations, though caking can occur if moisture enters the container.
Analytical laboratories commonly use high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and related impurities. Ion chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and titration assays can also quantify the compound. Water content is measured by Karl Fischer titration or loss on drying, because the monohydrate has a defined theoretical water fraction. Particle size, bulk density, and flowability are physical properties that affect blending and capsule filling. These measurements support quality control and help verify that a lot matches its specification.
Regulatory status varies by country. In the United States, creatine monohydrate is sold as a dietary supplement ingredient, while in the European Union it is placed on the market as a food supplement component. Some jurisdictions have established purity monographs or permitted health claims, while others treat it as a novel food or require notification. Product labels may state the amount of creatine monohydrate or the equivalent creatine content, and the two figures can differ. Independent testing programs sometimes check identity, potency, and contaminant limits.
Creatine monohydrate is stable under dry, cool conditions but can degrade when exposed to moisture and heat. In solution, it undergoes hydrolysis to creatinine, a cyclic derivative with little role in phosphagen energy transfer. The rate of conversion increases with temperature, storage time, and acidic or alkaline pH. Solid material kept in a sealed container at room temperature generally retains its composition for extended periods. Moisture uptake is a primary concern because it can accelerate breakdown and caking.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Typical storage temperature | 15–25 °C | Protect from moisture, heat, and direct sunlight |
| Analytical method | HPLC with UV or RI detection | Separates creatine from creatinine and related impurities |
| Water content | About 12.1% w/w | Theoretical value for the monohydrate crystal |
| Degradation product | Creatinine | Formed by cyclization, especially in aqueous solution |
| Common assay specification | 98.0–102.0% | Range depends on the testing method and monograph |
The term creatine monohydrate is often shortened to creatine in casual usage, though other creatine forms exist, including citrate, nitrate, and hydrochloride salts. These alternative forms differ in solubility, pH behavior, and the amount of creatine delivered per unit mass. Regulatory categories vary by country: some jurisdictions treat it as a food ingredient, while others place it under supplement or drug frameworks depending on claims and presentation. Standard reference texts list it as a naturally occurring nitrogenous organic acid rather than a vitamin or mineral.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline organic compound formed from creatine and water in a one-to-one ratio. It belongs to the guanidino family and contains a methylated guanidine group attached to an acetate-like chain. The solid is commonly described as a white, odorless powder with a mildly bitter taste. Its molecular formula is C4H11N3O3·H2O, and the hydrated form is the most widely traded grade. The compound occurs naturally in vertebrate muscle and brain tissue, where it participates in rapid energy buffering.
In the body, creatine is synthesized from arginine, glycine, and methionine, mainly in the liver and kidneys, and is also obtained from foods such as meat and fish. About 95% of body creatine is stored in skeletal muscle, where a fraction is phosphorylated to phosphocreatine. Phosphocreatine serves as a rapid reserve of high-energy phosphate for short bursts of ATP regeneration. The monohydrate form supplies creatine after dissolution and absorption, but it is not itself the active phosphorylated species.
Creatine was first identified in skeletal muscle extracts in the nineteenth century, and its role in phosphagen energy buffering was clarified in the twentieth century. The monohydrate salt became widely studied after methods for inexpensive synthesis and crystallization were developed. Modern research examines its effects on muscle energetics, recovery, and cognitive performance under specific conditions. Findings vary with population, exercise protocol, baseline creatine status, and measurement method. Studies often compare supplementation with placebo during controlled training or testing schedules.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed when one molecule of creatine associates with one molecule of water in the solid lattice. Its molecular formula is C4H11N3O3, and its molar mass is about 149.15 grams per mole. The material appears as a white, odorless powder that dissolves sparingly in water at room temperature. The monohydrate designation distinguishes it from anhydrous creatine, which lacks the bound water and has a lower molar mass. This hydrate is the most common commercial form of creatine used in nutritional and research settings.
Creatine is synthesized endogenously in humans, mainly in the liver, kidney, and pancreas, from the amino acids arginine, glycine, and methionine. Skeletal muscle stores much of the body's creatine, where it participates in the phosphocreatine system that buffers adenosine triphosphate during short, intense contractions. Dietary sources include meat and fish, so omnivorous diets provide additional creatine beyond endogenous production. Supplemental creatine monohydrate supplies the same molecule found in food and tissues, not a distinct drug or hormone. Research interest centers on its role in cellular energy transfer and its effects on muscle and other tissues.
Iraqi commandos infiltrated the Kuwaiti border first to prepare for the major units, which began the attack at midnight. The Iraqi attack had two prongs, with the primary attack force driving south straight for Kuwait City down the main highway, and a supporting attack force entering Kuwait farther west, but then turning and driving east, cutting off Kuwait City from the country's southern half. The commander of a Kuwaiti armored battalion, 35th Armoured Brigade, deployed them against the Iraqi attack and conducted a robust defense at the Battle of the Bridges near Al Jahra, west of Kuwait City. Kuwaiti aircraft scrambled to meet the invading force, but approximately 20% were lost or captured. A few combat sorties were flown against Iraqi ground forces. The main Iraqi thrust into Kuwait City was conducted by commandos deployed by helicopters and boats to attack the city from the sea, while other divisions seized the airports and two airbases. The Iraqis attacked the Dasman Palace, the Royal Residence of Kuwait's emir, Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, which was defended by the Emiri Guard supported with M-84 tanks. In the process, the Iraqis killed Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, the Emir's youngest brother. Within 12 hours, most resistance had ended within Kuwait, and the royal family had fled, allowing Iraq to control most of Kuwait. After two days of intense combat, most of the Kuwaiti military were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard, or had escaped to Saudi Arabia. The emir and key ministers fled south along the highway for refuge in Saudi Arabia.
=== Denaturing ribonucleases === 2-Mercaptoethanol is used in some RNA isolation procedures to eliminate ribonuclease released during cell lysis. Numerous disulfide bonds make ribonucleases very stable enzymes, so 2-mercaptoethanol is used to reduce these disulfide bonds and irreversibly denature the proteins. This prevents them from digesting the RNA during its extraction procedure.
== Industry applications == The liquid chromatography marketplace is incredibly diverse. Five to ten firms are consistently market leaders, yet nearly half of the market is made up of small, fragmented companies. This section of the report will focus on the roles that a few companies have had in bringing monolith column technologies to the commercial market. In 1998, start-up biotechnology company BIA Separations of Ljubljana, Slovenia, came into being. The technology was originally developed by Tatiana Tennikova and Frantisek Svec during a collaboration between their respective institutes. The patent for these columns was acquired by BIA Separations and Ales Podgornik and Milos Barut developed the first commercially available monolith column in the form of a short disc encapsulated in a plastic housing. Trademarked CIM, BIA Separations has since introduced full lines of reversed-phase, normal-phase, ion-exchange, and affinity polymeric monoliths. Ales Podgornik and Janez Jancar then went on to develop large scale tube monolithic columns for industrial use. The largest column currently available is 8L. In May 2008, LC instrumentation powerhouse Agilent technologies agreed to market BIA Separations’ analytical columns based on monolith technology. Agilent's commercialized the columns with strong and weak ion exchange phases and Protein A in September 2008 when they unveiled their new Bio-Monolith product line at the BioProcess International conference.
Warden III, who largely planned the USAF attacks; within ten minutes of the attacks by 21 F117 aircraft on 38 targets, Iraq had lost its communications and radar; Lt-Col David Deptula; in the first wave were 4 Saudi Arabian Tornado aircraft, 4 Grumman A-6 Intruder and SEAD McDonnell Douglas F-4G Wild Weasel V aircraft, 5 Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler aircraft to provide electronic jamming of the Iraq airspace, and 21 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet aircraft, each which dropped the AGM-88 HARM anti-radiation missile, to destroy the Iraq surface to air missile capability; Tomahawk missiles were fired from battleships in the Gulf and submarines in the Red Sea; the General Dynamics F-111 had around four thousand gallons of fuel; before advanced guidance systems for munitions, munitions would land according to the circular error probability, which was around a half-mile for a B-17 in World War II; the first laser-guided munitions were the Pave Tack system, which debuted on the F-111 in 1982, first deployed by F-111 aircraft from RAF Lakenheath; Duncan Lennox, editor of Jane's Strategic Weapon Systems; Theodore Postol; on one evening, twenty-eight MIM-104 Patriot missiles were launched against five ballistic missiles, which had broken up on re-entry to the earth's atmosphere - hitting any of these fractured ballistic missiles was almost impossible, due to the unforeseen changing aerodynamics; Lt-Col George Cusimano, deputy director of the USAF joint; the joint also deployed synthetic-aperture radar, to give a fuller view of ground forces, from the AN/APG-76 Doppler radar; the ground picture could be relayed to ground forces, such as in the Battle of Khafji on 29 January 1991; Royal Scots 1st Battalion, with GKN Warrior tracked armoured vehicles and Major John Potter; the experimental Ferranti TIALD laser-guided munitions were deployed by RAF Panavia Tornado aircraft to destroy Iraq hardened aircraft shelters in February 1991; 39th Regiment Royal Artillery deployed the M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS); the land battle began on 24 February 1991, watched by the DOAE in Surrey; the land war did not last long, and on 26 February 1991 retreating Iraqi vehicles and tanks were systematically destroyed by AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, launched from undetected Boeing AH-64 Apache helicopters, resulting in total destruction; the USS Wisconsin battleship fired at Failaka Island, with surveillance provided by its AAI RQ-2 Pioneer drone. Narrated by Edward Hardwicke, directed by Chris Haws, produced by Richard Melman, made by InCA Productions 18 August The Healing Mind, about the field of psychoneuroimmunology; psychiatrist Janice Kielcolt-Glaser of Ohio State University College of Medicine; psychologist Barrie R. Cassileth; chemical pathologist Malcolm Carruthers takes a blood sample from a candidate, who has been driven around Brands Hatch at 115 mph; Theodore Melnechuk of the University of California; the body's immune system - the phagocytes destroy foreign bacteria, the natural killer cells destroy the body's own cells that are too damaged, and the lymphocyte T cells and B cells remember pathogens, with a corresponding antibody; experimental psychologist Robert Ader of the University of Rochester Medical Center conducted research on rats in 1975, with cyclophosphamide, which weakens the immune system, and immunologist Nicholas Cohen; prolonged secretion of endogenous opioid peptides may lower the immune function; neuroscientist David L. Felten of the University of Rochester; psychoimmunologist Nick Hall of the University of South Florida College of Medicine and an experiment with drama students, where lowering of T cells was found; Kathleen Dillon of Western New England College, where an experiment measured Ig A of candidates who watched types of television content, and found that Ig A temporarily increased with amusing content; psychiatrist Fawzy Fawzy of the University of California; psychiatrist Margaret Kemeny of UCLA. Narrated by Geoff Watts (of Radio 4's former Science Now series, produced by Geoff Deehan in the 1970s), directed by Yavar Abbas, produced by Geoff Deehan, made by Sandlin Productions 25 August Spacesuit, the spacesuits that astronauts wore during the Apollo missions to the Moon, and whether such spacesuits would be advanced enough to be worn for future missions to Mars; by 2020, NASA expected to have landed on Mars; at sea-level, air pressure is 14 PSI; ILC Dover in Newark, Delaware has made all NASA spacesuits since the late 1960s; medical research at the Ames Research Center; Joe Kosmo, head of NASA spacesuit design; the invention of the defecation-mitten by Matthew Radnofsky; Bruce Webbon of the Ames Research Centre; the Johnson Space Center also worked on suit design. Directed by Patrick Uden, made by Uden Associates 1 September The Falls, about the Niagara Falls. Produced by Clare Odgers, made by the National Film Board of Canada and Primitive Features 8 September Re-inventing Japan, looking at Japan's success in applied science, contrasted with less success in pure science and whether Japan could enhance its pure science industry enough, which has connections with a country's own cultural values and outlook, and how Britain has excelled in pure science, but how much that university funding cuts could erode Britain's prowess in pure science; Japan few Nobel prizes, but excelled at applied science and exploiting others' research by reverse engineering; Canon had £6bn of sales, of which 40% were photocopiers, such as the L5; Hajime Mitarai, research director of Canon, and how Canon had eight product divisions, with their own engineering staff in each division, with process physicists and inorganic chemists; with Western science innovations, it often came from a set of individuals, whereas Japan's innovation culture revolved around much intense group cooperation, not individuals; Japan had only won five Nobel prizes since the 1950s - the US had won 135; a youthful Matt Ridley of The Economist; Fujitsu was the world's second-largest manufacturer of computers, and had bought ICL (which had been Ferranti) in 1990, and sold £10bn a year; Naoki Yokoyama and Takahiko Misugi of Fujitsu; Japan could not rely on other countries research anymore, and had to conduct more in-house research; Japan's culture was not greatly known for originality or taking risks, or being surprised; pathologist Sir Anthony Epstein and how Japan greatly revered tradition, and conformity, possibly viewing anyone who didn't likewise confirm as troublesome; electrical engineer Hiroya Fujisaki, of Tokyo University and known for the Fujisaki model, and that he thought that Japan's culture had historically eroded originality; the national research organisation Riken was formed in 1917, and made great progress, with a large cyclotron, and visited by Einstein in December 1922, but the US was suspicious after the war, and destroyed Riken's cyclotron; Minoru Oda, head of Riken from 1988 to 1993; the US distrusted Japan, and preferred Japan to work on mainly applied science; physicist Akira Tonomura at the Hitachi Advanced Laboratory, which had the world's largest electron microscope; Shojiro Asai of Hitachi; the Canon Advanced Research Laboratory; the Tsukuba Science City and the University of Tsukuba, built by the Japanese government for £6bn, and home of the Japanese ERATO science innovation agency; Genya Chiba, director of ERATO; Michio Nagai, former minister of education in the mid-1970s. Directed by Bob Bee, produced by Michael Wills (later Labour MP from 1997 to 2010 for North Swindon), and made by Juniper Productions 13 September Theme Park Heaven, Walt Disney; Sylvère Lotringer of Columbia University; Arrow Dynamics of California, with Dal Freeman Ron Toomer; David Lewis; Cedar Point, built by Custom Coasters International of Cincinnati; Eric Westin of Walt Disney Imagineering, and the Big Thunder Mountain Railroad ride; Marc Davis, who drew Tinkerbell in Peter Pan, and who worked on the Pirates of the Caribbean ride, which opened in 1967; Larry Lester and David Codiga of Universal Studios, and their earthquake Studio Tour and Backdraft rides; Dreamland in 1912; psychologist Timothy Leary; Douglas Trumbull and the Back to the Future: The Ride and Luxor Las Vegas; Stan Kinsey of SimEx-Iwerks; Michael Ryder and Thom Dickeson of Evans & Sutherland, and texture mapping onto polygons, a main feature of transportation simulations; Bob Stone of the Advanced Robotics Research Centre at the University of Salford. Narrated by Richard O'Brien, produced by Jerome Kuehl, directed by Graham Moore, made with WGBH and Open Media 22 September The Professor's New Clothes, a re-broadcast of an Australian documentary about Professor Vishwa Jit Gupta of Panjab University and his fraudulent work about paleontology of the Himalayas. Directed by Stephen Ramsey, produced by Janet Bell, and made by Film Australia 29 September The Gambler's Guide to Winning, the ways of deploying mathematical techniques to win in gambling, with probability theory methods developed by Prof Edward O. Thorp of University of California, Irvine; the disastrous 1967 Grand National, where nearly all the horses fell at the 23rd fence; Frank Honywill George of Brunel University; Ralph Abraham of University of California, Santa Cruz; Peter A. Griffin of California State University, Sacramento; the gambler's fallacy; J. Doyne Farmer of the Santa Fe Institute. Narrated by Andrew Burt, directed by Julian Nott (son of the Conservative former defence secretary Sir John Nott, who later composed the music for Wallace and Gromit films such as The Wrong Trousers), produced by Jenny Barraclough, made by Peninsula Films 6 October Superpowers?, with Ray Hyman, about the international group of sceptics Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, who dispute topics such as UFOs, made by Open Media 13 October The Lean Burn Machine, about the development of catalytic converters for automotive engines, and how they cause more fuel to be burned than before, and the British engineer Geoffrey West who has produced an alternative, but faced restrictions from EC (EU) legislation; Europe introduced pollution legislation in July 1992; California had the worst vehicle pollution in the US, notably LA; the Clean Air Act; Rob Searles of Johnson Matthey; German environment minister Bernd Schmidbauer - Germany had over two-thirds of European car exports to the US; French physicist Hubert Curien, Minister of Higher Education, Research and Innovation from 1988 to 1993; chemistry graduate Margaret Thatcher being interviewed on 2 March 1989 on the BBC, and lean-burn engines; Bernard Bertrand, head of engine development of Peugeot; Shillington of BL; the new EC legislation in 1992 would outlaw lean-burn powered cars; Dutch automotive writer Gerard Sauer. Narrated by Nick Ross, directed by Nick Abson and Simon Broom, produced by Michael Blakstad (Editor from 1974 of Tomorrow's World), made by Workhouse 20 October The Elements, the poet Roger McGough narrates poetry for each element and how the Periodic Table came to be formed; 5% of the Earth's crust is iron; xenon is found in strobe lights; argon is in domestic incandescent light bulbs; the light bulb filament is tungsten, but reserves of tungsten are low. Directed by Ian Duncan, produced by David Dugan, made by Windfall Films (part of Argonon). Shown on 25 November 1992 on The Nature of Things in Canada 27 October The Strange Case of Crop Circles, an update to the documentary made in 1990, looking at why the 250 crop circles that appeared in the summer, that around 50% of the circles appeared in Wiltshire; the phenomenon took off after a circle near Westbury was pictured in a local newspaper in 1980; Tim Carson charged £1 per visitor to a circle in 1990, and 7,000 visited the Eastfield Pictogram at Alton Barnes, near Milk Hill; Steve Woolgar; Sir Francis Graham-Smith of the Royal Society, who dismissed those people interested in crop circles as mixed company who talked a lot of rubbish and it was a profit-less business to get involved with people who were completely hooked on the unknown; Serena Roney-Dougal; a youthful-looking Matt Ridley of The Economist said that since episodes with nuclear power in the 1970s, people had questioned evidence that scientists had told them; physicist Terence Meaden, who founded TORRO; Yoshi-Hiko Ohtsuki of Waseda University, who researched ball lightning. Narrated by Gavin Weightman, directed by Jill Freeman, and produced by her husband Michael Wills, made by Juniper Productions 3 November Human Waste, new ways of treating excrement such as dry compost toilets, oxidation pools and greenhouses. Directed by Kate Woods (Australian), made by John Blake Associates
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Objective == Grameen Danone Foods aims to reduce poverty by creating business and employment opportunities for local people since raw materials including milk needed for production, will be sourced locally. The companies that make up Grameen Danone Foods Ltd. have agreed not to take out any of the profits out of the company. Instead they will invest these for creation of new opportunities for the welfare and development of people. Hence it is called 'social business enterprise'.
In the last episode of season three, Mark proposes to Sarah and it is revealed in the first episode of the fourth season that she accepted. Sarah goes to work for photographer Hank Rizzoli. In season 4, episode 10, "Trouble in Candyland", Mark breaks up with Sarah because of her habit of running away from things that make her feel good about herself. This happens after Sarah puts her job before Mark when she turned down going to a wedding with him so she could accompany her boss to a photography job in Los Angeles. In season five she becomes the superintendent of an apartment building before becoming Hank's photography partner full-time. Hank and Sarah marry in the series finale.
=== Factors other than glucose that affect A1c === Lower-than-expected levels of HbA1c can be seen in people with shortened red blood cell lifespans, such as with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, sickle-cell disease, or any other condition causing premature red blood cell death. Other variant hemoglobins, such as HbF or HbE, may have different glycation characteristics or respond differently in a HbA1c test. For these patients, alternate assessment with fructosamine or glycated albumin is recommended; these methods reflect glycemic control over the preceding 2–3 weeks. In a blood donor, donation will result in loss of mature RBCs and their rapid replacement with newly formed red blood cells. Since these new RBCs will have only existed for a short period of time, their presence will lead HbA1c to underestimate the actual average levels. There may also be distortions resulting from blood donation during the preceding two months, due to an abnormal synchronization of the age of the RBCs, resulting in an older than normal average blood cell life (resulting in an overestimate of actual average blood glucose levels). Conversely, higher-than-expected levels can be seen in people with a longer red blood cell lifespan, such as with iron deficiency. Results can be unreliable in many circumstances, for example after blood loss, after surgery, blood transfusions, anemia, or high erythrocyte turnover; in the presence of chronic renal or liver disease; after administration of high-dose vitamin C; or erythropoetin treatment. Hypothyroidism can artificially raise the A1c.
==== Radical site-initiated fragmentation ==== Sigma bond cleavage also occurs on radical cations remote from the site of ionization. This is commonly observed in alcohols, ethers, ketones, esters, amines, alkenes, and aromatic compounds with a carbon attached to ring. The cation has a radical on a heteroatom or an unsaturated functional group. The driving force of fragmentation is the strong tendency of the radical ion for electron pairing. Cleavage occurs when the radical and an odd electron from the bonds adjacent to the radical migrate to form a bond between the alpha carbon and either the heteroatom or the unsaturated functional group. The sigma bond breaks; hence this cleavage is also known as homolytic bond cleavage or α-cleavage.
== External links == "Terracotta Is a 3,000-Year-Old Solution to Fighting Extreme Heat". Scientific American. - uses of terracotta for refrigeration Green Cooling Initiative, on alternative natural refrigerants cooling technologies "The Refrigeration Cycle" at HowStuffWorks "The Refrigeration". frigokey.com.tr. Archived from the original on March 20, 2017. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) British Institute of Refrigeration Scroll down to "Continuous-Cycle Absorption System" US Department of Energy: Technology Basics of Absorption Cycles Institute of Refrigeration
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Purity testing often uses high-performance liquid chromatography to measure creatine and creatinine. Water content can be checked by Karl Fischer titration. Additional tests may cover heavy metals, residual solvents, and microbial contamination.
In solution, creatine can cyclize spontaneously to creatinine. Heat and certain pH conditions increase the rate of this conversion. Dry crystalline material is more stable because the reaction requires water.
Typical storage is in a sealed container at room temperature, away from moisture and direct heat. These conditions reduce caking and slow degradation. Liquid products require more careful handling because creatine is less stable in water.
A sealed container at room temperature, away from moisture and direct heat, is suitable for most solid material. Keeping the lid closed limits water uptake and caking. Long-term storage in a refrigerator is not necessary if the powder remains dry.